Cities across the world are not only implementing climate policies but also learning from one another in the process. New research titled 'The rules of engagement: Conditions for city-to-city learning on climate change policy.' by Elena Marie Enseñado, Jurian Edelenbos and Leon van den Dool explores how cities exchange policy knowledge through city-to-city (C2C) learning, revealing that meaningful engagement depends less on geography and more on people, experience, and local context.
Rethinking how cities learn
From heatwaves to flooding, cities are at the frontline of climate change. Many have become vital laboratories for innovative policies from nature-based solutions to carbon neutrality pledges. But what determines whether cities actually learn from one another?
Elena Marie Enseñado’s research reframes C2C learning as an active and reciprocal process where cities act simultaneously as sources and seekers of knowledge. Drawing on data from the Global Covenant of Mayors (GCoM), the study analyses how cities around the world exchange ideas on mitigation, adaptation, and resilience.
Networks provide the scaffolding, but it’s people who make the bridges.
Patterns of engagement across regions
Mapping global engagement reveals distinct regional patterns. European cities primarily learn from one another, while Asian and African cities maintain strong regional connections. Cross-continental exchanges remain limited, with cities in the Americas and Oceania engaging mainly within their regions.
Despite these divides, cities share common learning priorities. Mitigation policies (such as low-emission mobility, renewable energy, and building efficiency) dominate the agenda, followed closely by adaptation practices like drought management and flood control. Nature-based solutions are gaining traction as holistic approaches to climate resilience.
When asked about future priorities, cities expressed both local and global ambitions: while European cities tend to look inward, African and Asian cities show openness to broader international learning.
| Cities that others have engaged with | Cities that others wish to engage with | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Top 10 cities | Top 10 countries | Top 10 cities | Top 10 countries |
| Rotterdam | Netherlands | Rotterdam | Netherlands |
| Amsterdam | Sweden | Copenhagen | Spain |
| Stockholm | Spain | Paris | Denmark |
| Malmo | Belgium | Barcelona | Germany |
| Valencia | Austria | Vienna | USA |
| Hamburg | France | Amsterdam | France |
| Linz | Norway | Stockholm | Sweden |
| Vienna | Finland | Berlin | Austria |
| Barcelona | Portugal | London | Italy |
| Oslo | Denmark & Nigeria | Singapore | Japan |
The few conditions that drive engagement
The study (Enseñado, Edelenbos, and van den Dool, 2025a) identifies three key conditions shaping city-to-city learning:
- Frequency of climate-related work
- Local climate pressures
- Years of experience in city administration
These factors, rooted in local context and individual characteristics, help explain why some cities actively engage in learning networks while others struggle to do so. Engagement thrives where professionals are motivated by local experience, supported by institutional capacity, and empowered by long-term involvement in city governance.
Interestingly, formal network membership alone does not predict engagement. Instead, “boundary spanners” - individuals who build connections across cities - play a vital role in sustaining collaboration. They ensure that relationships persist even as staff or political priorities change.
Building bridges beyond boundaries
This research reframes C2C learning as a purposeful and human-driven process. The few “rules of engagement” it identifies remind us that successful cooperation depends as much on people as on institutions.
Future studies could further explore how different political and cultural contexts shape city learning networks. Yet one insight already stands out: investing in people who connect cities may be among the most powerful tools in advancing global climate action.
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- More information
For further reading:
- Enseñado, E. M., Edelenbos, J., & van den Dool, L. (2025a). The rules of engagement: Conditions for city-to-city learning on climate change policy. Environmental Policy and Governance. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.70007
- Enseñado, E. M., Edelenbos, J., & van den Dool, L. (2025b). City-to-city learning on climate change policy: Dynamics at the individual and organizational levels. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2025.2492707
